33 Hours and 11,000 Kilometers: Delivering a Restored DC-3

The Design Rationale Behind McDonnell Douglas’s Three-Engine DC-10 Regulatory and Technical Constraints The decision by McDonnell Douglas to equip the DC-10 with three engines rather than the more straightforward two-engine configuration prevalent today was shaped by a complex set of factors rooted in the technological and regulatory landscape of the late 1960s and 1970s. Central to this choice was the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) “60-minute rule,” which prohibited twin-engine aircraft from flying more than 60 minutes away from a suitable diversion airport. This regulation effectively excluded two-engine widebody jets from operating on long overwater or remote transcontinental routes, thereby limiting their use on many profitable international services. Although jet engine reliability was steadily improving during this period, it had not yet reached a level that inspired full confidence among airlines or regulators for long-haul flights relying on only two engines. By adopting a three-engine, or trijet, design with the third engine mounted in the tail, McDonnell Douglas ensured the DC-10 could circumvent these regulatory restrictions. This configuration granted airlines immediate access to global routes without awaiting regulatory changes or exemptions. Additionally, the extra engine provided vital thrust for operations at high-altitude airports such as Denver and Mexico City, where thinner air posed significant performance challenges. Market Demands and Competitive Pressures In the 1970s, airlines demanded aircraft that combined safety, versatility, and operational flexibility. The DC-10’s trijet design addressed these needs by offering enhanced safety margins and route flexibility, which were critical competitive advantages in a rapidly evolving market. McDonnell Douglas did explore the possibility of a two-engine variant, the “DC-10 Twin,” which promised reduced weight and improved fuel efficiency akin to the emerging Airbus A300. However, the prevailing regulatory constraints that limited twinjets’ operational range rendered this option commercially unfeasible for long-haul flights, leading the company to abandon the concept. Safety Concerns and Shifting Market Perceptions Despite its initial advantages, the DC-10’s three-engine layout became a subject of controversy following several high-profile accidents in the 1970s, which raised questions about the aircraft’s safety and affected public confidence. Concurrently, advances in engine reliability and evolving regulatory standards began to alter market perceptions. Competitors responded accordingly; Boeing introduced the two-engine 767, emphasizing the improved reliability and efficiency of twin-engine designs. The aviation industry’s transition into the 1980s was marked by the introduction of ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-Engine Operations Performance Standards), which permitted twinjets to operate on routes previously restricted to trijets and four-engine aircraft. This regulatory shift, combined with growing confidence in twin-engine safety, prompted airlines to favor more economical two-engine aircraft for long-haul operations. The widespread adoption of twinjets ultimately signaled the decline of the trijet era. Legacy The DC-10’s three-engine configuration was a direct response to the unique challenges of its time, balancing regulatory compliance, technical feasibility, and market demands. Although eventually supplanted by more efficient twin-engine aircraft, the rationale behind the DC-10’s design provides valuable insight into a transformative period in aviation history, bridging the era of four-engine jetliners and the modern age of fuel-efficient twinjets.

CFM56 Engine Values Highlight Investor Opportunities and Risks The market for CFM International’s CFM56 engines has witnessed remarkable growth, with values for certain variants increasing by as much as 50% over the past two years. This surge, detailed by Magnetic Leasing in an exclusive report for Aviation Week Network, reveals a complex landscape of lucrative opportunities alongside emerging risks for investors and operators. Market Dynamics and Valuation Challenges Magnetic Leasing, a prominent engine leasing firm, cautions that traditional valuation benchmarks for used engines are becoming less reliable. According to CEO Alex Vella, the uniqueness of each used engine—shaped by factors such as component condition, maintenance history, utilization patterns, and prevailing lease rates—renders broad valuations difficult. The primary market driver remains straightforward: demand continues to outpace supply, particularly for the CFM56-7B variant. Although the CFM56-5B lags slightly in value, it is also experiencing upward momentum, especially among high-thrust models. Rising operational costs are significantly influencing investment strategies. The escalating expenses associated with shop visits—attributable to increased labor, material, and OEM part prices—have made rebuilding CFM56 engines to traditional standards of 7,500 to 9,000 flight cycles increasingly uneconomical. Consequently, many operators are opting for shorter, less costly maintenance cycles targeting 4,000 to 6,000 flight cycles. High build standards are now generally reserved for engines undergoing major performance overhauls, where a target of 10,000 cycles or more is necessary to justify the investment. Industry Responses and Market Outlook This evolving environment has prompted strategic responses across the industry. Hanwha Aviation has secured financing to expand its engine leasing portfolio, focusing primarily on CFM56 engines to capitalize on current demand. Ryanair plans to conduct additional engine shop visits by year-end to optimize its fleet’s performance and cost efficiency. Other market participants are adapting accordingly: APOC Aviation is revising its strategies to address regional demand fluctuations and persistent supply constraints, while FTAI Aviation is enhancing its repair capabilities to reduce dependence on third-party services. Compounding these challenges is a sharp rise in OEM material prices, which have increased by approximately 30% over two years, alongside a shortage of used serviceable material. This scarcity compels many operators to purchase new parts, thereby increasing investment requirements and compressing profit margins. Magnetic Leasing anticipates a market correction within the next two to three years. Smaller carriers, still financially vulnerable following the pandemic, face heightened risk. Should lease rates become unsustainable, a wave of airline failures could result in increased returns of airframes, some of which may not be economically viable to convert. This scenario could lead to more engine teardowns and a renewed supply of green-time material, potentially alleviating current supply constraints. Amid this volatility, specialist maintenance, repair, and overhaul providers such as Aero Norway are consolidating their focus, concentrating almost exclusively on CFM56-5B and -7B engines to streamline operations and prepare for future transitions. CEO Neil Russell notes that insights gained from the CFM56 market are informing the company’s move into Leap-1A and -1B engine work. Aero Norway is also employing artificial intelligence to enhance material planning and operational forecasting, aiming to deliver greater value and reduce complexity for airline customers. With valuations reaching record highs on one hand and mounting operational pressures on the other, the CFM56 engine market stands at a critical crossroads, presenting both significant opportunities and considerable risks for investors and operators alike.

Globalia Advances Digital Transformation to Enhance Traveler Experience in Spain Spain as a Hub for Aviation Innovation Spain is rapidly establishing itself as a center of digital innovation within the aviation industry, with Globalia leading a comprehensive transformation aimed at redefining the traveler experience. The company has shifted from incremental modernization efforts to implementing a fully integrated digital strategy that enhances operational efficiency, personalization, and seamless travel processes. Importantly, this transformation maintains the essential human element that remains central to air travel. Industry analysts anticipate that by mid-2025, the deployment of advanced technological systems will transcend mere operational improvements to become foundational for the future of global air travel. Travelers are already benefiting from expedited procedures and more customized services, reflecting a broader industry trend toward personalization and emotional engagement, as emphasized at the recent PCW Europe conference. Market Dynamics and Competitive Pressures Globalia’s digital initiatives unfold within a dynamic and competitive market environment. The recent acquisition of Be Live Experience Orotava by Ona Hotels highlights potential shifts in market dynamics, underscoring the necessity for agility and innovation. Competitors are increasingly adopting artificial intelligence as a core operational tool to enable smarter and more responsive services. The industry is also closely monitoring developments such as Delta Air Lines’ contentious use of AI in airfare pricing and the rise of subscription-based loyalty programs, both of which may influence Globalia’s strategic trajectory. Experts contend that the aviation sector is at a pivotal juncture, where the integration of digital technology, sustainability commitments, and traveler-centric services is ushering in a new era. Spain’s dual emphasis on advanced digital systems and sustainable operations positions the country as a launchpad for industry-wide modernization. Innovations originating in Spain are expected to extend their influence first across Europe and Latin America, before reaching markets in Asia, North America, and Africa. Challenges and Future Outlook This transformation is not without significant challenges. Economic uncertainty, climate imperatives, and escalating traveler expectations demand that airlines balance efficiency, flexibility, and environmental responsibility to remain competitive. Analysts stress that the significance of these developments lies not only in immediate operational improvements but also in the confidence they foster throughout the industry. Spain, with Globalia at the forefront, is demonstrating that aviation can modernize while preserving the quality of the traveler experience. As the sector adapts to emerging technologies and shifting market forces, the future of travel will be defined by innovation, sustainability, and a renewed focus on the passenger. Spain’s leadership in this transformation sets a precedent for the global aviation industry, marking a new chapter in how airlines connect with and serve travelers worldwide.

Hanwha Aviation Expands Maintenance Services with LEAP Engines Hanwha Aviation, a company established just 14 months ago, is swiftly broadening its presence in the engine maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) sector. The firm has already acquired approximately 40 narrowbody engines, including the latest LEAP and GTF models, and recently inaugurated Hanwha AeroTechnix, an MRO facility in Miami certified by the FAA, EASA, and UK CAA. Strategic Focus on Next-Generation Engines In a recent interview with Ishka, Ben Pughe-Morgan, Hanwha Aviation’s Chief Investment Officer, outlined the company’s ambitions for the coming year, highlighting a strategic emphasis on servicing new-generation engines such as the LEAP. Pughe-Morgan noted the significant growth potential in supporting operators of LEAP engines, driven by the expanding global fleet and increasing demand for dependable MRO solutions. Challenges and Competitive Dynamics Hanwha’s expansion into LEAP engine maintenance is accompanied by considerable challenges. The operational costs and technical complexities involved in servicing these advanced engines are substantially higher than those associated with legacy models. Industry analysts and engine lessors have expressed concerns over the volatility of maintenance expenses for LEAP engines, which contrasts with the more predictable costs linked to current-generation engines. The competitive environment is intensifying as established MRO providers, including MTU Maintenance, enhance their LEAP engine capabilities to capture a share of this growing market. Simultaneously, some competitors are concentrating on older engine models such as the CFM56. For instance, Magnetic Leasing is prioritizing CFM56 engines, citing rising shop visit costs for newer engines and the relative stability of maintaining mature platforms. Market observers suggest that the influx of MRO providers into the LEAP engine segment is likely to spur innovation but may also exert downward pressure on pricing and profit margins. Engine lessors are closely monitoring these developments, carefully assessing the risks and opportunities associated with the industry’s shift toward more complex, next-generation engine technologies. Outlook and Future Plans Despite these challenges, Hanwha Aviation remains optimistic about its prospects. The company’s investment in Hanwha AeroTechnix, combined with its expanding portfolio of advanced engines, positions it to play a significant role in the evolving MRO landscape. Over the next 12 months, Hanwha intends to broaden its service offerings further and strengthen partnerships with airlines and lessors as the industry transitions to next-generation engine technology.

India Advances Toward Indigenous Fifth-Generation Fighter Jets At the ET World Leaders Forum in Delhi, India’s Defence Minister Rajnath Singh underscored the nation’s expanding capabilities in indigenous defence manufacturing, highlighting the Tejas light combat aircraft as a pivotal achievement in India’s defence narrative. Singh described the Tejas as a “defining moment” that exemplifies the country’s commitment to self-reliance in defence technology. Acknowledging the challenges faced, he affirmed the government’s determination to overcome obstacles and establish full domestic capability to build advanced fighter aircraft. Singh further announced that India is progressing toward the development of fifth-generation fighter jets, with a particular emphasis on manufacturing the aircraft engines domestically. He revealed that engine production is set to commence in collaboration with the French aerospace company Safran, marking a significant step in India’s pursuit of technological autonomy in defence. The Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft and Engine Collaboration Central to this initiative is the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), India’s most ambitious aviation project to date. The Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA), operating under the Defence Ministry, has finalized the AMCA’s design and is preparing five prototypes. The rollout is planned for 2027, followed by flight testing in 2028, with induction into service anticipated around 2036. The AMCA is designed as a twin-engine, single-seat stealth fighter capable of executing both air superiority and deep strike missions. Project Director Krishna Rajendra emphasized the aircraft’s stealth features, noting that it will evade enemy radar detection through advanced design elements. The fighter will incorporate internal weapons bays, radar-absorbing materials, and an artificial intelligence-driven “electronic pilot” system to assist in combat decision-making, effectively replacing the need for a second human pilot. Initially, the AMCA will be powered by GE-414 engines. However, the government has entered into a partnership with Safran to co-develop a new 110-kilonewton engine. This collaboration forms part of the India-France Horizon 2047 strategic plan, aiming to deliver a fully co-developed engine with comprehensive technology transfer. Safran, known for manufacturing the Rafale’s M88 engine, will also establish a Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility in Hyderabad to support ongoing operations. Challenges and Strategic Implications The pursuit of indigenous engine development presents considerable challenges, including overcoming technological complexities in advanced propulsion systems, managing high research and development costs, and investing in the necessary infrastructure and skilled workforce. Despite these hurdles, the initiative has garnered positive market responses, with growing interest in public-private partnerships to drive innovation and enhance self-reliance. The competitive environment is intensifying as foreign companies vie for contracts related to engine technology amid India’s push for domestic capability. Defence sources indicate that the new engine is expected to be operational within the next decade, powering advanced variants of the AMCA. Singh highlighted India’s expanding role in global supply chains and its ability to provide stability during periods of disruption, reflecting the country’s ascending economic and technological stature on the international stage.

TP Aerospace Expands Presence with New Facility in Singapore TP Aerospace has inaugurated a new office alongside a combined wheel and brake maintenance and warehouse facility in Singapore, following full approval from the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS) on August 18. This development represents a pivotal step in the company’s strategic expansion across the Asia Pacific region. State-of-the-Art Facility Designed for Growth Situated in Changi Business Park, the newly established 3,000 square meter facility is purpose-built to support future growth and is outfitted with the latest machinery. The design incorporates enhanced process flows and LEAN principles throughout the operation, aiming to improve efficiency and streamline both warehouse and maintenance functions. These operational enhancements are expected to bolster TP Aerospace’s customer support capabilities and better position the company to meet increasing demand within the region. Since 2013, Singapore has served as TP Aerospace’s Asia Pacific headquarters, providing a strategic hub for servicing customers across the region. The opening of this new facility reaffirms the company’s long-term commitment to the Asia Pacific market by ensuring it has the necessary capacity and infrastructure to sustain growth. Navigating Challenges in a Competitive Landscape TP Aerospace’s expansion occurs amid a complex and competitive aerospace supply chain environment. The company faces challenges including fluctuating global economic conditions, such as rising interest rates and inflation, which may affect operational costs and demand. Furthermore, ongoing geopolitical tensions pose risks to supply chain stability, necessitating careful management to maintain uninterrupted service. Market responses to the new facility will likely depend on perceptions of TP Aerospace’s innovation and efficiency improvements. Competitors in the industry may react by investing in similar upgrades or enhancing their own operations to safeguard market share, potentially intensifying competition within the sector. Despite these challenges, TP Aerospace’s investment in Singapore reflects confidence in the region’s growth potential and demonstrates a proactive approach to addressing both current and future market demands.

Jordan Airmotive Signs MRO Agreement for CFM56-7B Engines with Texel Air Strategic Partnership to Enhance Engine Maintenance Services Jordan Airmotive has entered into a long-term general terms agreement (GTA) with Texel Air, a Bahrain-based ACMI and charter cargo airline that also operates as a certified airframe maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) provider. Under this new partnership, Jordan Airmotive will deliver comprehensive MRO services for Texel Air’s fleet of CFM56-7B engines. The collaboration aims to improve the reliability and operational efficiency of the carrier’s aircraft, reinforcing Jordan Airmotive’s position within the Middle East aviation sector. This agreement represents a strategic expansion for Jordan Airmotive, particularly among regional cargo and charter operators. By customizing MRO programmes to address the specific demands of these sectors—where operational uptime, cost management, and flexibility are paramount—the company seeks to solidify its reputation as a trusted partner in a highly competitive market. Industry Challenges and Market Dynamics The deal comes at a time when the aviation maintenance industry faces significant challenges. Rising costs associated with shop visits, driven by increases in labor, materials, and original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts, are rendering engine overhauls for mature platforms like the CFM56-7B progressively less cost-effective. This economic pressure is prompting operators and MRO providers alike to reconsider the viability of extensive engine repairs, exploring alternatives such as sourcing used serviceable materials or evaluating the return-to-service potential of other engine models, including the CFM56-5A. The MRO market is currently experiencing record-high profitability, which is intensifying competition among service providers. Industry players are expected to respond by strengthening partnerships with suppliers of used serviceable materials and adopting more structured assessment methodologies to optimize engine maintenance strategies. These evolving dynamics are likely to heighten competition as MRO providers navigate shifting regional demand and constrained supply chains. Jordan Airmotive’s Capabilities and Future Outlook Jordan Airmotive holds certifications from leading aviation authorities, including the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), positioning it well to meet these industry challenges. The company offers an extensive portfolio of repair and overhaul services covering engines such as the CF6-80C2, CFM56-7B, CFM56-5B, and CFM56-3. Furthermore, Jordan Airmotive is preparing to expand its capabilities to include next-generation engine platforms, with upcoming services for the LEAP-1A and LEAP-1B engines. By leveraging its internationally recognized certifications and technical expertise, Jordan Airmotive aims to maintain its status as a preferred MRO partner for airlines, lessors, and operators worldwide. The agreement with Texel Air not only underscores the company’s strength in servicing the CFM56-7B engine segment but also highlights its adaptability in addressing the evolving demands of the global MRO landscape.

Kenyan Start-Up Fly Mara Wet-Leases A321-P2F Freighter Fly Mara Airlines, a Nairobi-based start-up, has commenced operations by wet-leasing an Airbus A321-200(P2F) freighter from Egypt’s Sky Vision Airlines. This development follows the airline’s recent acquisition of its air operator’s certificate (AOC) in January 2025. The 21-year-old aircraft, registered SU-SKF (msn 2247), arrived at Nairobi’s Jomo Kenyatta International Airport from Cairo on August 19. Capable of carrying up to 25 tons of cargo, the freighter is set to serve clients across the Gulf, Europe, and Africa from Fly Mara’s Nairobi hub, according to Go Charter, the Egyptian broker responsible for facilitating the agreement. Lease Agreement and Aircraft History The wet-lease contract spans six months with an option for extension, as confirmed by a Go Charter spokesperson. Fly Mara’s AOC (KCAA/FOPS/3010/279), issued on January 27, 2025, is valid for one year until January 26, 2026, and has been independently verified by ch-aviation. The A321-200(P2F) was delivered to Sky Vision Airlines in September 2024 after undergoing a passenger-to-freighter conversion by ST Engineering in Singapore. Prior to its conversion, the aircraft operated as a passenger jet for Asiana Airlines from June 2004 to November 2016, and subsequently for Asiana subsidiary Air Busan until August 2022. Market Context and Challenges Fly Mara’s entry into the regional cargo market occurs amid intensifying competition from established carriers such as Saudia Cargo and Vietnam Airlines, both of which are expanding their freighter operations through wet-lease agreements. This competitive environment presents significant challenges for the Kenyan start-up, including the necessity to secure reliable wet-lease arrangements and to manage the operational and financial risks inherent in operating a single A321-P2F freighter. Industry analysts suggest that Fly Mara’s financial stability and capacity to sustain operations will be closely scrutinized as it attempts to carve out a position in a market dominated by larger, well-capitalized airlines. Competitors are expected to respond with strategic partnerships or increased investment in their own freighter fleets to protect their market share. In addition to its cargo services, Fly Mara Airlines promotes passenger flights to Kenya’s Masai Mara National Reserve in collaboration with local carriers such as Safarilink Aviation, FlyALS, and AirKenya, according to information available on its website. ch-aviation has contacted Fly Mara Airlines, Sky Vision Airlines, and Go Charter for further comment.

Bombardier Opens New Manufacturing Facility in Moorpark Bombardier has inaugurated its newly relocated and expanded component manufacturing facility in Moorpark, California, marking a pivotal development in the company’s strategy to bolster its U.S. operations. The 46,000-square-foot site replaces the previous Los Angeles-area facility acquired in 2022 and serves as a state-of-the-art hub for producing components for Bombardier’s flagship Global 7500 and Global 8000 business jets. Strategic Significance and Local Engagement The ribbon-cutting ceremony on August 20, 2025, was attended by Janice Parvin, Chair of the Ventura County Board of Supervisors, alongside local community leaders and Bombardier employees. The Moorpark facility currently employs 30 staff members, reflecting the company’s emphasis on technical expertise and stringent quality standards in aircraft manufacturing. David Murray, Executive Vice President of Manufacturing, IT, and Bombardier Operational Excellence System, highlighted the strategic importance of the relocation. He stated, “This facility secures our long-term presence in California and strengthens our U.S. manufacturing base.” Murray further described the Moorpark site as emblematic of Bombardier’s ongoing commitment to innovation, high-quality employment, and fostering regional partnerships. Broader Industry Context and Market Implications The relocation and expansion align with Bombardier’s broader strategy to enhance its footprint in the U.S. aerospace sector, encompassing both aircraft manufacturing and aftermarket services. Since leasing the Moorpark facility in 2024, the company has steadily integrated the site into its global supply chain, reinforcing its dedication to local communities. Nonetheless, this expansion occurs within a competitive and rapidly evolving manufacturing landscape. Bombardier may encounter challenges related to supply chain logistics, regulatory compliance, and intensified market competition. Industry analysts observe that competitors such as Jets MRO and Dassault Aviation might respond by upgrading their manufacturing capabilities or expanding service offerings to maintain market share. The recent facility expansions by companies like Westrock Coffee and NFI Group’s Alexander Dennis subsidiary further illustrate the dynamic and competitive nature of manufacturing growth across various sectors. Investor response to Bombardier’s investment has been positive, with increased interest in the company’s aerospace division. The new Moorpark facility signals a long-term commitment to advanced engineering and component manufacturing within California’s robust aerospace industry. With the Moorpark site now fully operational, Bombardier aims to solidify its regional presence while advancing its leadership in business jet innovation and manufacturing excellence.

Royal Thai Air Force to Upgrade Engines with Rolls-Royce T56 Series 3.5 Partnership and Program Overview Rolls-Royce has announced a strategic collaboration with Thai Aviation Industries (TAI) to implement the T56 Series 3.5 engine upgrade for the Royal Thai Air Force’s (RTAF) fleet of C-130H transport aircraft. This initiative positions the RTAF as the first operator in the Asia-Pacific region to adopt this advanced engine enhancement, which aims to reduce operating temperatures, extend component lifespan, and improve overall aircraft reliability. The upgrade program involves Boeing Distribution Inc (BDI), Rolls-Royce’s global distributor for the 3.5 upgrade kits, supplying essential components to Segers Aero Corporation for integration into the T56 engines. Each C-130H aircraft, powered by four T56 engines, will benefit from these improvements, which have already demonstrated success with the United States Air Force and NOAA’s P-3 fleets. Scope and Expected Benefits The contract encompasses upgrades for six aircraft, including spare engines, and is projected to reduce operational costs, decrease maintenance demands, and achieve fuel savings exceeding 10 percent. These enhancements are expected to sustain the RTAF’s C-130H fleet in active service until at least 2040, ensuring long-term operational capability. Alex Zino, Director of Business Development and Future Programmes at Rolls-Royce, emphasized the significance of the partnership, stating, “We are proud to support our Royal Thai Air Force partners, enabling them to maintain critical transport air capability for decades to come. This contract, secured through our longstanding partnership with TAI and Segers, demonstrates our commitment to delivering advanced technologies and reliable equipment to armed forces worldwide.” Amber Carnes, Vice President of T56 Programs at Rolls-Royce, highlighted the engine’s enduring legacy: “The T56 is a robust and reliable engine, serving military and civil aircraft globally for over 70 years. This contract underscores our ongoing commitment to supporting transport aircraft fleets worldwide.” Regional Impact and Future Challenges Air Chief Marshal Piboon Vorravanpreecha, Managing Director of Thai Aviation Industries, underscored the project’s importance, noting, “TAI is proud to serve as the prime contractor for the T56 Series 3.5 upgrade, supporting the modernization of the C-130H fleet. This initiative marks a major milestone for the Royal Thai Air Force and showcases TAI’s growing role in regional aerospace support.” Following a competitive tender process, the Royal Thai Air Force selected Segers Aero Corporation and Turbo Power LLC, both based in the United States, to execute the upgrade. While Rolls-Royce’s recent surge in profits and share prices—driven by strong demand for its jet engines—provides a favorable backdrop for the program, potential challenges remain. These include logistical and technical complexities such as ensuring compatibility with existing aircraft systems and securing ongoing support services. Additionally, competitors in the engine market may respond by advancing their own technologies and offering cost-effective alternatives. Nonetheless, the RTAF’s decision to adopt the T56 Series 3.5 upgrade reflects a clear commitment to modernizing its fleet and maintaining operational readiness well into the future.