Data Centers Adopt Aviation Engines for Power Generation

Expert Calls for Policy Reform to Boost Local MRO Investment and Reduce $1 Billion Maintenance Costs Urgent Need for Regulatory Changes Capt. Samuel Caulcrick, a seasoned aviation expert and former Rector of the Nigeria College of Aviation Technology (NCAT), Zaria, has urged the Nigeria Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA) to implement comprehensive policy reforms aimed at stimulating investment in local Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facilities. Caulcrick highlighted the critical need to address the annual outflow of approximately $1 billion spent by Nigerian airlines on aircraft maintenance abroad. This reliance on foreign MRO services not only drains the country’s foreign exchange reserves but also impedes the growth and development of the domestic aviation sector. In an interview with *The Guardian*, Caulcrick pointed out that despite operating within Nigeria, most domestic carriers continue to outsource essential aircraft maintenance and heavy checks to overseas providers. He advocated for the NCAA to enforce existing regulations that mandate airlines to engage local MRO partners as a prerequisite for renewing their Air Operator Certificates (AOC). According to Caulcrick, such enforcement would reduce the need for airlines to expend scarce foreign currency on overseas maintenance, particularly on the costly man-hour component, which has been exacerbated by the naira’s volatility. Economic and Operational Benefits of a Local MRO Sector Caulcrick emphasized that a thriving local MRO industry could position Nigeria as a regional maintenance hub, attracting foreign airlines, generating employment opportunities, and drawing vital investment into the sector. Recent industry data underscores the magnitude of the issue, with Nigerian airlines collectively spending around $1 billion annually on offshore maintenance. At a recent aviation forum in Lagos, Air Peace Chairman Dr. Allen Onyema revealed that his airline alone incurred N180 billion in overseas aircraft maintenance costs in 2024. The expert further stressed that regulatory reforms must be complemented by targeted efforts to encourage investment in the MRO sector. He identified several key challenges, including high operational costs, outdated facilities, and inadequate equipment. Caulcrick noted that developing a competitive MRO industry requires substantial capital investment and strong government commitment to upgrade infrastructure and provide policy support. He also drew attention to the ongoing brain drain of skilled engineers and technicians, many of whom are trained locally but are lured abroad by better employment conditions. Challenges and Regional Competitiveness Building a robust local MRO ecosystem, Caulcrick argued, would yield significant economic advantages such as job creation, technology transfer, and improved aircraft turnaround times. A well-developed MRO sector would enhance the sustainability and global competitiveness of Nigeria’s aviation industry by enabling local providers to respond swiftly to customer needs and minimize aircraft downtime. Nonetheless, the path to establishing a successful MRO industry is fraught with challenges. Industry analysts highlight potential supply chain disruptions, regulatory compliance issues, and workforce shortages as major obstacles. Globally, competitors are adapting through strategic partnerships and technological investments. For instance, Atitech’s joint venture in Saudi Arabia and Pratt & Whitney’s advancements in materials forecasting and supply chain management exemplify efforts to enhance efficiency. Additionally, geopolitical factors such as Brexit have influenced workforce dynamics in the UK’s MRO sector, further shifting market conditions. Concluding his remarks, Caulcrick expressed confidence that with the appropriate policy framework and sustained investment, Nigeria could transform its aviation maintenance landscape, reduce capital flight, and secure a competitive advantage within the region.

MRO Update: October 21, 2025 AAR and Eaton Forge Strategic Partnership for Hydraulic Component Services AAR has been designated as an authorised aerospace service centre by Eaton, following a new agreement that entrusts AAR with the repair and overhaul of Eaton’s hydraulic components used in large commercial aircraft across Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (EMEA). These services will be conducted at AAR’s Component Services facility in Amsterdam, ensuring adherence to official repair documentation and the use of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) spare parts. Matt Norman, vice president of Aftermarket and Commercial Services for Eaton’s Aerospace Group, emphasized that the partnership reflects a commitment to enhancing customer satisfaction by expanding repair options for hydraulic pumps and extending collaboration beyond spare parts distribution. Initially, AAR will concentrate on hydraulic pump repairs for EMEA commercial customers, with plans to broaden the scope to additional products and regions in the future. Industry Challenges and Responses Amid Supply Chain Disruptions The maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) sector continues to confront significant challenges, particularly in materials supply chains. At MRO Europe 2025, over half of the attendees reported severe supply chain difficulties, prompting companies such as Pratt & Whitney to adopt vertical integration strategies and implement data-driven materials forecasting. Providers of component maintenance are increasingly contending with parts shortages and prolonged turnaround times, often resorting to alternative repair methods or the use of used serviceable material (USM) where appropriate. Additionally, shifts in tariffs and broader economic factors are exerting pressure on MRO operations. The aging of aircraft fleets further complicates the landscape, necessitating advanced engineering solutions to manage obsolescence and ensure regulatory compliance. Maintenance Agreements and Innovations Across the Industry In the United States, Embraer has extended its long-term maintenance agreement with Republic Airways, covering heavy maintenance for over 240 E170 and E175 jets at Embraer’s Services & Support facilities in Nashville, Tennessee. Since 2011, Republic Airways has completed more than 650 heavy maintenance visits and logged upwards of 3.3 million labor hours at the site. The renewed agreement secures an additional 225 heavy maintenance visits and guarantees three dedicated maintenance bays, thereby ensuring capacity and scheduling flexibility. Frank Stevens, Vice President of MRO Services at Embraer Services & Support, expressed enthusiasm about the extension, highlighting the company’s commitment to delivering high-quality maintenance services. Meanwhile, ATR and ATAVIS, the technical procurement and supply chain management entity of Binter, have entered into a five-year Global Maintenance Agreement (GMA) to support 26 ATR 72-600 aircraft operated by CANAIR and NAYSA. ATR’s flagship GMA service provides tailored, scalable maintenance solutions on a pay-by-hour basis, covering 180 part numbers and designed to meet Binter’s specific operational requirements. This agreement follows extensive consultations to ensure the services align fully with the airline’s needs, offering predictable maintenance costs and operational flexibility. To mitigate ongoing supply chain and inventory challenges, companies such as Satair are introducing innovative products like the Cargo Robust floor panel. This product aims to reduce the financial and operational impact of floor panel damage while enhancing flexibility for operators managing parts shortages. As the MRO industry continues to navigate persistent supply chain disruptions, economic pressures, and the complexities associated with aging fleets, strategic partnerships and innovative solutions remain essential to sustaining operational reliability and customer satisfaction.

Young Airbus Jets Retired Prematurely Amid Engine Shortage Crisis A notable and unconventional trend has emerged in the aviation industry as a growing number of relatively young Airbus A320neo family aircraft are being retired after just six to eight years in service. This early retirement is driven by a critical shortage of Pratt & Whitney geared turbofan (GTF) engines, which has forced airlines to dismantle entire aircraft to salvage these valuable components. The shortage originates from manufacturing defects linked to contaminated powdered metal, a problem that has grounded a significant portion of the global A321neo fleet and continues to disrupt airline operations worldwide. Despite Pratt & Whitney’s efforts to address the issue through a comprehensive inspection program launched in 2023, the backlog for engine repairs and upgrades is not expected to be resolved until 2027. Faced with grounded aircraft and tight operational schedules, airlines and lessors have resorted to an unusual solution: parting out relatively new jets to harvest their engines, which have become a scarce and highly prized commodity. Economic Pressures Reshape Industry Practices The financial dynamics underpinning this trend are remarkable. Upgraded Pratt & Whitney GTF engines now command market values of approximately $20 million each and can lease for over $200,000 per month. Given that each aircraft requires two engines, the combined lease value of the engines nearly equals the value of the entire airplane. In many cases, dismantling the aircraft to sell not only the engines but also avionics, landing gear, and other components yields a higher return than selling or leasing the jet intact. This inversion of traditional market logic is particularly striking amid a global shortage of aircraft, exacerbated by pandemic-related production delays at Airbus and Boeing, alongside ongoing safety concerns affecting Boeing models. With new aircraft deliveries lagging and demand for used jets soaring, one might expect young aircraft to be quickly redeployed by other operators. Instead, financiers and lessors are capitalizing on the premium value of engines, leading to the teardown of more than a dozen recently built A320 family aircraft for parts. Broader Industry Implications and Responses The engine reliability crisis extends beyond the A320neo family. Air Austral, for example, recently retired its entire fleet of Airbus A220-300s after just four years, citing persistent technical issues with the Pratt & Whitney PW1500G engines. This decision, which left two of its three aircraft grounded, highlights the widespread challenges faced by operators dependent on these affected engine models. In response to the crisis, maintenance providers are expanding their capabilities. ITP Aero has increased its commercial engine repair services, securing approval to overhaul PW1500G engines for the A220 family and PW1900G engines for Embraer E2 jets. Concurrently, GE Aerospace is investigating the effects of dust on turbine engine performance, reflecting ongoing industry efforts to enhance engine reliability. A Market in Disarray Currently, nearly one-third of the Airbus A320neo family fleet—approximately 635 aircraft—remains grounded or in storage, awaiting engine repairs or replacements. With spare engines scarce and prices more than double their historical averages, the incentive to dismantle young aircraft for parts has never been stronger. As original equipment manufacturers struggle to meet demand and airlines face delivery waits of up to eight years, the aviation industry finds itself in an unprecedented situation where the combined value of an aircraft’s components exceeds that of the whole.

Turbine Conversions Ltd. Commemorates 35 Years in Agricultural Aviation and 25 Years of Single Point Fueling **Nunica, Michigan — October 2025** – Turbine Conversions Ltd. (TCL) is celebrating two major milestones this year: 35 years of service in the agricultural aviation industry and the 25th anniversary of its FAA-certified Single Point Fueling (SPF) System. First approved on October 19, 2000, the SPF System has become the most sought-after upgrade for agricultural aircraft globally, with over 1,500 units delivered to date. A Legacy of Innovation and Safety The SPF System, certified by the Federal Aviation Administration through a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC), has established itself as the industry benchmark for fueling safety and operational efficiency. It is approved for installation on all models of Air Tractor, Thrush, Ag Cat, and M18 Dromader agricultural aircraft. Renowned for its reliability and engineered safety controls, the system benefits from a proven operational history and widespread adoption. This success is supported by TCL’s extensive global dealer network, trusted maintenance partners, and a dedicated customer base. Adapting to a Transforming Industry As TCL marks these achievements, it confronts a rapidly evolving agricultural aviation landscape. The emergence of digital agriculture technologies is reshaping the sector, with companies such as CropX and Taranis leading innovation in data-driven farming solutions. The digital agriculture market is projected to expand significantly, from $24.6 billion in 2024 to $65.5 billion by 2034, intensifying competition and compelling industry players to adapt. TCL’s deep expertise and reputation for quality position the company favorably to navigate these changes. Market observers anticipate a positive response to TCL’s continued leadership in agricultural aviation and fueling safety. Nonetheless, competitors are expected to enhance their technological offerings to maintain market share, highlighting the importance for TCL to persist in innovating and integrating new technologies into its product portfolio. About Turbine Conversions Ltd. Established in 1990, Turbine Conversions Ltd. is a multi-generational, family-owned enterprise dedicated to innovation, quality, safety, and integrity. Holding more than 40 Supplemental Type Certificates from the FAA, ANAC, and EASA, TCL continues to develop certified solutions trusted by pilots worldwide, advancing the field of agricultural aviation. www.turbineconversions.com

Brazilian, Chinese, and UK Airlines Target Nigerian Domestic Market for Expansion Nigeria’s Ambition as Africa’s Aviation Hub Nigeria is rapidly positioning itself as a central aviation hub in Africa, drawing significant interest from major international airlines and investors from Brazil, China, and the United Kingdom. This development was highlighted by Nigeria’s Minister of Aviation, Festus Keyamo, during a global press conference held in Abuja to mark the launch of Africa’s first aeronautics university. Keyamo detailed the country’s strategic approach to opening its skies to global players through targeted partnerships and substantial infrastructure development. Central to this strategy is the concessioning of airports and the attraction of maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) investors, often in collaboration with local partners. A notable example is the recent inauguration of a major MRO facility in Lagos, established in partnership with Brazilian manufacturers, which underscores the growing direct foreign investment in Nigeria’s aviation sector. Policy Reforms and International Partnerships Minister Keyamo also announced new initiatives aimed at easing leasing restrictions to attract global aircraft leasing firms. For the first time in nearly two decades, Nigeria is set to receive a dry-leased aircraft, a significant milestone for domestic carriers that signals increasing investor confidence in the country’s aviation market. International aviation companies are responding to these opportunities. Dublin-based leasing firm Aircap and China’s COMAC are actively exploring partnerships with Nigerian operators. COMAC, in particular, intends to deploy its C919 aircraft on domestic routes, with ambitions for broader expansion across the African continent. Challenges and Competitive Dynamics Despite the promising outlook, the entry of Brazilian, Chinese, and UK airlines into Nigeria’s domestic market faces several challenges. Industry analysts have identified regulatory hurdles, competition from well-established Nigerian carriers, and logistical constraints related to infrastructure as potential obstacles. The arrival of new players is expected to intensify competition, which may lead to price wars and enhanced service offerings for passengers. In response, local airlines are likely to pursue strategic alliances and increase marketing efforts to protect their market share. The launch of the new aeronautics university, coupled with ongoing policy reforms, is anticipated to have a transformative impact on the sector. By training pilots and aviation professionals domestically, Nigeria and other African nations stand to save millions of dollars annually and reduce dependence on foreign training programs, thereby bolstering regional aviation independence. As Nigeria continues to implement these reforms and attract international investment, it is poised to become a pivotal player in Africa’s rapidly expanding aviation market, notwithstanding the competitive and regulatory challenges that lie ahead.

Archer Aviation Expands Partnership with Korean Air Archer Aviation, the electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) startup supported by Boeing, is broadening its collaboration with Korean Air to introduce air taxi services in South Korea. This announcement propelled Archer’s shares up 6% in early U.S. trading, reflecting investor optimism about the company’s growing presence in the urban air mobility sector. The partnership focuses on deploying Archer’s Midnight eVTOL air taxis for short urban trips and airport transfers, positioning the company as a key player in the emerging market for sustainable, efficient city transportation. Strategic Collaboration and Market Positioning Backed by industry leaders such as Boeing and Stellantis, Archer is leveraging South Korea’s strong interest in innovative transit solutions to accelerate the commercial rollout of its air taxis. Korean Air is expected to place an order for up to 100 Midnight eVTOL aircraft, joining other major customers like United Airlines. In addition to expanding its customer base, Archer has recently enhanced its technological capabilities by acquiring hundreds of patents from competitor Lilium and demonstrating advancements in performance testing. These developments underscore the company’s commitment to maintaining a competitive edge in a rapidly evolving industry. Challenges and Competitive Landscape Despite the promising outlook, Archer faces significant challenges on the path to commercial operations. Regulatory approval remains a major obstacle, as aviation authorities in South Korea and other countries continue to develop frameworks for advanced air mobility services. The company also contends with intense competition from rivals such as Joby Aviation and Lilium, both of which are actively pursuing their own strategic partnerships and technological innovations. As the market intensifies, these competitors may respond with similar alliances or acquisitions to secure their positions. Investor enthusiasm for urban air mobility is strong, driven by the potential for cleaner and faster urban commutes and the involvement of established aerospace firms. However, the sector’s long development timelines and substantial costs are evident. Archer projects adjusted EBITDA losses of up to $130 million this quarter, an increase from $93 million a year earlier, highlighting the financial challenges inherent in transitioning from prototype development to commercial deployment. This underscores the need for investor patience as companies navigate regulatory, technical, and market complexities. Broader Implications for Urban Transportation The expansion of air taxi services carries significant implications for the future of urban transportation. These vehicles offer a sustainable alternative to traditional transit modes, aligning with global efforts by governments and airlines to reduce emissions. South Korea’s early adoption of eVTOL technology could help establish international standards and accelerate industry momentum. Moreover, the partnership between Archer and Korean Air may drive further technological innovation and influence consumer acceptance, both of which are critical for widespread adoption. Regulatory clarity and public trust will be essential factors in determining the success of urban air mobility initiatives. While Archer’s expanded partnership strengthens its position in the global air taxi race, the journey toward profitability and mainstream adoption is expected to be gradual. The company’s progress highlights the complex interplay of innovation, competition, and regulatory approval that will shape the future of urban air transportation and determine which companies emerge as leaders in the skies above tomorrow’s cities.

Ghana’s Century Aviation Announces Air Taxi Service with C408 Aircraft Ghanaian helicopter operator Century Aviation has unveiled plans to launch fixed-wing scheduled air taxi and cargo services using the 19-seat SkyCourier 408 (C408) aircraft. This initiative represents a significant advancement in expanding regional air mobility options within Ghana. The announcement followed a demonstration flight conducted by Africair, the Textron Aviation distributor, on September 25. During the demonstration, the SkyCourier, registered as N408TA, flew from Accra to Ho, although the flight was not tracked via ADS-B data. Records show that the aircraft departed Wichita, Kansas, on September 8 and arrived in Accra on September 23 after a 16-day journey with multiple international stops. Regulatory Approval and Strategic Expansion The Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) confirmed that Africair’s demonstration flight was authorized under a special one-time approval to assist Century Aviation in assessing potential future investments. At present, Century Aviation holds certification exclusively for offshore helicopter operations. The company’s strategic objective is to broaden its scope to include scheduled passenger and cargo services, focusing on underserved markets and enhancing charter offerings for multinational clients in the oil, gas, and mining industries. Century Aviation has collaborated with Africair over the past four years to develop a dependable air taxi service tailored to Ghana’s unique transportation demands. The introduction of the C408 aircraft aims to bridge gaps in regional connectivity, providing flexible solutions for both passenger travel and cargo transport. Challenges in a Competitive Market Despite these ambitions, Century Aviation faces considerable challenges in establishing itself within the emerging urban air mobility sector. Key obstacles include scaling up production of the C408, obtaining necessary regulatory approvals, and competing against established international players. Companies such as Archer Aviation and Joby Aviation have already made significant progress in the global air taxi market. Archer Aviation, for instance, maintains a $6 billion order book and is focused on reducing per-unit costs to enhance accessibility. Meanwhile, Joby Aviation is advancing its commercial launch plans in the UAE and Dubai, highlighting the intensifying competition and rapid technological advancements in the sector. These developments illustrate the competitive environment Century Aviation must navigate as it pursues its air taxi ambitions. The company’s efforts to introduce scheduled air taxi services in Ghana have the potential to reshape the nation’s regional air transport landscape, contingent upon overcoming production, regulatory, and market challenges. Century Aviation and Africair have been contacted for further comment.

Understanding Wet-Leasing Following Emirates Cargo Plane Incident in Hong Kong The recent incident involving an Emirates cargo plane in Hong Kong has brought renewed attention to the practice of wet leasing within the aviation industry. The accident, which tragically resulted in two fatalities and led to the temporary closure of the airport’s north runway, has sparked widespread discussions regarding the safety and regulatory oversight of wet-leased aircraft operations. Defining Wet Leasing and Its Operational Framework Wet leasing, often referred to as ACMI—an acronym for Aircraft, Crew, Maintenance, and Insurance—is a leasing arrangement where an airline leases not only the aircraft but also the crew, maintenance services, and insurance from another operator. Under such agreements, the lessor retains operational control, and the aircraft operates under the lessor’s Air Operator Certificate (AOC). This structure allows airlines to augment capacity or cover operational gaps without directly managing the leased aircraft’s day-to-day operations. Implications of the Emirates Incident on Industry Practices The Emirates cargo plane accident has exposed potential vulnerabilities inherent in wet-leasing arrangements, particularly concerning safety oversight and regulatory compliance. In response, aviation authorities are anticipated to intensify scrutiny of wet-leased operations, potentially introducing more stringent regulations to ensure uniform safety standards across all operators involved. Airlines that depend significantly on wet-leased aircraft may face increased market pressures and could be compelled to reevaluate their leasing strategies amid this heightened regulatory environment. Industry competitors are also expected to reassess their own wet-leasing practices and safety protocols to mitigate risks and preserve public trust. As investigations into the incident proceed, the aviation sector remains attentive to possible regulatory reforms and shifts in market dynamics that may influence the future role of wet leasing. This incident highlights the critical need for rigorous safety measures and clear operational control within wet-leasing agreements, as the industry strives to balance operational flexibility with uncompromising safety standards.

Archer Aviation’s Air Taxi Certification Delayed, Passenger Flights Deferred to 2026 Regulatory Setbacks and Revised Timelines Archer Aviation’s ambitious plan to launch battery-powered air taxi services has encountered a significant delay, with certification now unlikely before the end of 2025. Consequently, passenger flights have been postponed to 2026, according to sources cited by Bloomberg News. Regulatory authorities in the United Arab Emirates, initially expected to authorize the air taxis within the current year, are taking longer than anticipated to complete their review. Individuals familiar with the process, speaking on condition of anonymity, confirmed the extended timeline. This development represents a notable shift from Archer’s earlier projections. In February, the Palo Alto-based company had announced intentions to commence passenger flights “later this year.” The revised schedule, now targeting a 2026 launch in collaboration with its Abu Dhabi partners, delays the debut of the air taxi service by several months. Industry Challenges and Competitive Pressures The postponement arrives at a critical juncture for the emerging electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) sector, where regulatory approval remains a formidable challenge. The uncertainty surrounding the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) certification timeline exemplifies the broader difficulties faced by companies introducing novel aviation technologies. Heightened regulatory scrutiny, coupled with the complexities of scaling production to meet rigorous safety standards, continues to exert pressure across the industry. This delay may also exacerbate investor concerns and intensify competition within the market. Rivals such as Joby Aviation could leverage the opportunity to accelerate their own certification processes and further validate the safety and viability of their eVTOL designs. In response to these industry dynamics, Archer has pursued strategic initiatives to bolster its position, including acquiring patents from Lilium and establishing partnerships with firms like Anduril Industries to enhance its technological capabilities and readiness for market entry. Despite these efforts, the certification delay highlights the substantial obstacles that remain for Archer and its competitors. The company’s capacity to navigate complex regulatory environments and sustain investor confidence will be closely monitored as the race to commercialize air taxi services advances.

AerFin Completes First A320neo Teardown in the Philippines, Marking Regional Milestone AerFin, a prominent aviation asset specialist, has successfully completed the disassembly of a 2017 Airbus A320neo at the SIA Engineering Company’s Philippines facility, SIAEP. This operation represents the first-ever teardown of an A320neo in the Philippines and marks SIAEP’s inaugural aircraft disassembly project. The achievement underscores the expanding roles of both AerFin and SIAEP within the aviation aftermarket sector. The teardown was completed within 30 days, setting a new standard for efficiency in the region. The aircraft, equipped with PW1100 engines, is part of AerFin’s growing portfolio of A320neo assets. The disassembly will provide high-quality used serviceable parts from one of the world’s most widely operated narrow-body aircraft, making these components readily available to operators and maintenance providers throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Strategic Importance and Regional Impact Paul Ashcroft, Senior Vice President of Asia Pacific at AerFin, highlighted the strategic significance of the project, stating that completing the teardown in the Philippines demonstrates the company’s commitment to the Asia-Pacific market. By positioning engines and components within the region, AerFin aims to reduce lead times and respond more swiftly to customer demand. This localized approach is expected to enhance operational efficiency for airlines and maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) providers by enabling faster turnaround times and lowering transportation costs. Through partnerships such as the one with SIAEP, AerFin is strengthening its regional presence and improving the supply chain for essential aviation components. This initiative supports the growing needs of the Asia-Pacific aviation sector and reflects a broader industry trend toward more efficient and sustainable aircraft lifecycle management. Challenges and Industry Context Despite the promising outlook, AerFin’s expansion into aircraft recycling and teardown in the region presents several challenges. The company must navigate complex logistics and regulatory compliance requirements inherent to aircraft recycling while ensuring sustained market demand for recycled parts. The move has attracted attention from both potential customers and competitors, with other lessors and storage companies likely to increase their own recycling operations to capture market share. Industry observers note that Tarmac Aerosave, a major player in aircraft recycling, anticipates additional AerFin aircraft arrivals, underscoring the competitive advantage held by companies capable of managing the recycling process efficiently. AerFin’s successful teardown in the Philippines exemplifies how regional collaboration and technical expertise can unlock new opportunities in aircraft lifecycle management. As the aviation aftermarket continues to evolve, localized and efficient solutions such as this are poised to play a crucial role in supporting airline operations and advancing sustainability objectives across the Asia-Pacific region.