Boeing Shares Fall 0.8% Amid DHS 737 Contract and Airbus Competition

ExecuJet Malaysia Secures EASA and FAA Certifications, Expanding MRO Capabilities ExecuJet MRO Services Malaysia, a wholly owned subsidiary of Dassault Aviation, has reinforced its position in the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) sector by obtaining certifications from both the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). These approvals significantly broaden the scope of services available at its Subang Airport facility, enhancing its ability to serve a diverse international clientele. Expanded Maintenance and Testing Authorizations The newly acquired EASA certification authorizes ExecuJet Malaysia to conduct both line and base maintenance on Falcon 7X aircraft, a key segment of its service portfolio. This certification also encompasses advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques, including ultrasonic, eddy current, magnetic particle, and penetrant inspections. Complementing this, the FAA has approved two additional NDT methods—ultrasonic inspection and penetrant testing—further augmenting the facility’s diagnostic and maintenance capabilities. Ivan Lim, Regional Vice President Asia for ExecuJet MRO Services, emphasized the strategic importance of the Falcon 7X base maintenance approval, noting the strong demand from European-registered Falcons operating across Asia. He stated, “The EASA certification demonstrates our commitment to meeting stringent international standards.” Lim further highlighted that the expanded NDT capabilities enable faster detection of structural defects, which in turn reduces unscheduled downtime and enhances operational efficiency for aircraft operators. Market Implications and Industry Challenges These certifications position ExecuJet Malaysia to better serve a growing market, particularly in regions governed by EASA and FAA regulations, including nine African states and the United States. Industry analysts anticipate that the enhanced approvals will stimulate increased demand for ExecuJet’s MRO services, as operators increasingly seek providers with comprehensive international certifications and advanced technical expertise. Nonetheless, the company continues to face challenges in maintaining competitive pricing against established MRO providers, ensuring consistent service quality, and navigating the complex regulatory frameworks imposed by both EASA and FAA. The evolving competitive landscape may prompt rival firms to upgrade their own MRO capabilities or pursue strategic partnerships to match ExecuJet’s expanded certifications and service offerings. As ExecuJet Malaysia integrates these new approvals, it aims to solidify its reputation as a leading MRO provider in the region, balancing regulatory compliance, technical excellence, and customer expectations within a highly competitive industry.

Italy’s ITA Airways Adopts Iris Technology to Enhance Flight Efficiency and Sustainability Italy’s ITA Airways has embarked on a significant technological advancement by integrating the next-generation Iris system, a move designed to improve flight efficiency and promote environmental sustainability. This initiative places ITA Airways at the forefront of aviation modernization, aligning with Italy’s environmental objectives and the broader industry commitment to greener air travel. Advancing Air Traffic Management with Iris Technology Iris technology, developed under the European Space Agency’s (ESA) acclaimed Iris programme and led by satellite communications provider Viasat Inc., represents a breakthrough in air traffic management (ATM) through advanced satellite connectivity. By adopting Iris, ITA Airways can implement trajectory-based operations that optimize flight paths, enabling smoother climbs and descents. This optimization reduces fuel consumption and lowers emissions, critical steps as the aviation sector strives toward its long-term goal of achieving net-zero emissions. Powered by Viasat’s SwiftBroadband-Safety (SB-S) platform, Iris supports 4D trajectory-based operations (TBO), allowing airlines to select the shortest and most efficient routes while avoiding holding patterns and maintaining optimal altitudes. This results in enhanced fuel efficiency and shorter flight durations. The system facilitates improved communication between aircraft and air traffic control through multilink data transmissions using VDL2 and Iris SATCOM, enabling real-time sharing of trajectory and operational data. Such capabilities allow airlines to calculate more precise flight paths, minimize delays, and operate with greater sustainability. The technology has received full certification from Airbus for use on A320 and A330 series aircraft, ensuring compatibility with a substantial portion of the European fleet. ITA Airways has already equipped four Airbus A320neo aircraft with Iris, marking a significant milestone in the ongoing modernization of European aviation. Implementation and Operational Context The deployment of Iris technology at ITA Airways is structured in two phases. The initial Pre-commercial Flights phase, running through the end of 2025, focuses on system validation and testing to ensure operational reliability and safety. This will be followed by full commercial deployment, allowing for broader integration across the airline’s fleet. Despite this technological progress, ITA Airways continues to grapple with operational challenges, particularly persistent issues with Pratt & Whitney’s GTF engines. These problems have resulted in aircraft groundings and have prompted the airline to consider legal action against the engine manufacturer. Nevertheless, ITA Airways is actively reinforcing its market position through strategic initiatives, including the introduction of new Airbus A220 aircraft and the launch of a direct Houston-Rome route ahead of its anticipated entry into the Star Alliance network. While specific market and competitor responses to ITA Airways’ adoption of Iris technology have yet to be disclosed, these developments underscore the airline’s commitment to innovation and sustainability. By embracing cutting-edge technologies and expanding its network, ITA Airways is solidifying its role as a leader in the evolving European aviation landscape.

Airbus Shares Face Volatility Amid Market Uncertainty Airbus, the European aerospace leader, is currently navigating a challenging landscape characterized by intensified competition, operational difficulties, and increased market volatility. Although the company continues to surpass its American rival Boeing in aircraft deliveries, recent setbacks—including a significant software recall and ongoing supply chain disruptions—have introduced uncertainty regarding its short-term performance. Revised Targets and Competitive Dynamics A pivotal development for investors has been Airbus’s decision to lower its delivery forecast for 2025. The company now anticipates delivering approximately 790 commercial aircraft, down from an earlier target exceeding 800. This revision stems primarily from quality issues affecting fuselage sections for the A320 family, which have delayed the production of up to 100 jets. In addition, Airbus is contending with a large-scale software recall impacting around 6,000 A320 family aircraft. This recall has disrupted airline operations worldwide and raised questions about the robustness of Airbus’s software systems, thereby exerting further pressure on both operational performance and investor confidence. In contrast, Boeing appears poised to gain momentum in net new orders for the first time since 2019. By November, Boeing’s net order count had reached 908, surpassing Airbus’s 700. Airbus CEO Guillaume Faury has acknowledged that U.S. trade policies have accelerated orders for Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner, contributing to this shift in market dynamics. Boeing’s stock has responded favorably, supported by a 2026 cash-flow commitment and a perception of operational progress, standing in stark contrast to Airbus’s lowered delivery targets and recent technical challenges. Operational Performance and Backlog Resilience Despite these challenges, Airbus retains a clear operational edge. In November alone, the company delivered 72 aircraft, significantly outpacing Boeing’s 44. Year-to-date figures show Airbus has delivered 657 jets compared to Boeing’s 537. Airbus’s substantial order backlog, totaling 8,695 aircraft—equivalent to roughly eleven years of production at current rates—provides a solid foundation of stability, exceeding Boeing’s backlog of 6,609 jets. A notable positive development has occurred in the critical Chinese market, where Airbus recently secured regulatory approval to deliver 120 previously ordered aircraft. This clearance is expected to bolster cash flow and streamline logistics, even as new orders from the region remain subdued. Market Outlook and Investor Considerations As Airbus approaches the year-end delivery period, the company faces the demanding task of delivering approximately 133 aircraft in December to meet its revised annual target—a potentially record-setting achievement. However, the ongoing software recall has compelled airlines worldwide to adjust their schedules. Some carriers, such as American Airlines, have managed to mitigate disruptions and maintain a constructive market outlook. Looking forward, attention is also focused on Airbus’s defense division, particularly the ongoing negotiations among Germany, France, and Spain concerning the Future Combat Air System (FCAS). This next-generation program could significantly influence the company’s long-term strategic trajectory. Currently, Airbus’s share price reflects a company with operational strengths but confronting near-term constraints stemming from supplier challenges, software reliability issues, and evolving geopolitical trade factors. The critical question for investors remains whether these obstacles will be contained within the coming quarters or if they will impede Airbus’s planned production expansion in 2026.

Parachuting Club Reviews Safety Software Following Jumper Snag Incident An Australian parachuting club is undertaking a comprehensive review of its safety protocols and software systems after a harrowing incident in Far North Queensland. On September 20, during a group jump involving 16 parachutists, a skydiver’s reserve parachute inadvertently deployed as they exited a Cessna 208 aircraft, becoming entangled on the plane’s tail. This unexpected event exposed vulnerabilities in both training and operational procedures. Incident Details and Immediate Response The Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) reported that the reserve parachute was caught by the wind and dragged the jumper out of the aircraft, wrapping around the horizontal stabilizer. The parachutist sustained a leg injury and was left suspended beneath the plane. Demonstrating remarkable presence of mind, the individual used a knife to sever the entangled chute and subsequently landed safely using their main parachute. The aircraft, meanwhile, experienced control difficulties due to the remaining parachute material attached to its tail. The pilot briefly contemplated abandoning the plane but ultimately managed a safe landing. All other jumpers completed their descent without incident. Investigation Findings and Safety Concerns The ATSB’s investigation revealed that the premature deployment resulted from the reserve handle snagging on the Cessna’s wing flap—a hazard not adequately addressed during pre-jump training. Notably, the training mock-up used by the club did not include wing flaps, leaving jumpers unprepared for this risk. The report also identified deficiencies in the club’s manifest software, which, while calculating the aircraft’s weight with jumpers aboard, lacked the capability to assess proper loading and balance. Furthermore, the pilot did not utilize the electronic flight bag to verify weight and balance for the flight, a procedural lapse the ATSB highlighted as a contributing factor in previous fatal accidents within similar operations. Although these shortcomings were not direct causes of the incident, the ATSB has strongly recommended that the club address them promptly. In response, the club is collaborating with its software provider to integrate balance calculations into its manifest system and is exploring alternative software solutions to bolster operational safety. Broader Implications for Aviation Safety This incident has drawn wider attention to the critical importance of robust safety protocols and reliable software in both parachuting and aviation sectors. Concurrently, Airbus is facing scrutiny over a software update affecting more than half of its A320 fleet, a development that may influence flight operations and investor confidence. Industry competitors are anticipated to respond by enhancing safety measures and software reliability to maintain trust and operational efficiency. The Far North Queensland event underscores the essential interplay between thorough training and advanced technology in safeguarding parachuting activities. It has prompted a sector-wide reassessment of risk management practices and the digital tools that support them.

NASA Demonstrates Advanced Simulation Platform for Urban Air Mobility NASA has introduced its Strategic Deconfliction Simulation platform, a cutting-edge technology designed to manage the complex operations of electric air taxis and drones within congested urban airspace. The agency showcased this platform at its Ames Research Center, emphasizing its potential to address the escalating challenges posed by the rapid growth of urban air mobility. Innovative Tools for Airspace Management The demonstration featured two principal components: the Situational Viewer and the Demand-Capacity Balancing Monitor. These tools offer real-time visualization of air traffic and facilitate dynamic adjustments to flight plans, enabling operators to effectively manage congestion and balance airspace demand. The simulation focused on drone operations over the Dallas-Fort Worth region, illustrating how preplanned flight paths can alleviate congestion and optimize the use of limited urban airspace. Hanbong Lee, an engineer at NASA Ames, highlighted the importance of such simulations, stating that they support broader efforts to ensure the safe integration of drones and other advanced aerial vehicles into the United States airspace system. Collaborative Development and Industry Partnerships The Strategic Deconfliction Simulation platform is a key component of NASA’s Air Mobility Pathfinders project, which operates under the Airspace Operations and Safety Program. The agency collaborated with several industry partners to develop and demonstrate the technology. ANRA Technologies contributed its fleet and vertiport management systems, coordinating multiple aircraft and ground operations during the simulation. Additionally, NASA partnered with ResilienX to create tools that enhance preflight planning and provide real-time risk assessments, thereby assisting operators in making safer decisions to protect both passengers and people on the ground. Challenges and Future Prospects Despite the promising demonstration, NASA faces significant challenges in ensuring the platform’s reliability and scalability in real-world urban environments. The technology must be robust enough to manage the complexities of dense city airspace and integrate seamlessly with existing urban air mobility infrastructures. Industry experts are closely monitoring the feasibility of adopting such advanced simulation systems on a broad scale. The market’s response to NASA’s progress may prompt competitors to accelerate the development of their own simulation technologies or improve existing systems to remain competitive. NASA’s planned technical capability level simulation, scheduled for 2026, is expected to further refine these services and could influence the pace of industry adoption. Success in these endeavors may encourage industry partners to expedite the integration of similar technologies, potentially shaping the future landscape of urban air mobility. NASA’s ongoing efforts aim to ensure that as drones and air taxis become increasingly prevalent, they can operate safely and efficiently within the crowded skies of modern cities.

Boom CEO Highlights Potential of AI Data Centers to Boost Supersonic Flight Development Boom Supersonic, the aerospace startup dedicated to reviving commercial supersonic travel, has embarked on an unexpected venture into the artificial intelligence sector. The company has begun marketing a variant of its turbine engine designed to power AI data centers, with its inaugural client being AI infrastructure firm Crusoe. This strategic expansion was supported by a recent $300 million funding round led by Darsana Capital Partners. Strategic Diversification and Funding Founder and CEO Blake Scholl underscored that this new direction will not detract from Boom’s primary objective of launching supersonic jets by the end of the decade. Speaking to Skift, Scholl described the initiative as a potential accelerant for the company’s aerospace ambitions. He suggested that revenue generated from turbine engine sales could provide crucial financial support for the development of Boom’s flagship Overture supersonic aircraft. Challenges and Industry Skepticism Despite the promising outlook, Boom’s pivot into powering AI data centers presents significant challenges. The company now contends with established power generation firms and must address regulatory complexities associated with adapting aviation-derived technology for data center applications. Industry experts have expressed reservations about the practicality of using aircraft engines in data centers, which demand exceptionally reliable and efficient power solutions. Market responses to Boom’s strategy have been mixed. Some analysts question whether the company’s approach can withstand financial pressures, particularly as AI infrastructure providers face their own scaling and operational difficulties. Additionally, Boom’s entry into this space may provoke competitive reactions from traditional power companies and emerging startups targeting the expanding AI data center market. Outlook Despite these uncertainties, Boom remains optimistic that its engagement with AI infrastructure will ultimately expedite its core mission in aerospace. The company’s capacity to channel turbine engine sales into funding supersonic flight development will be closely monitored as both the aviation and AI industries continue to evolve.

Investors React to Bristow Group's Role in UK Electric Air-Taxi Development Vertical Aerospace has announced a strategic partnership with Skyports Infrastructure and Bristow Group to establish what may become the United Kingdom’s first electric air-taxi routes. The initiative aims to connect Canary Wharf with key transport hubs including Heathrow, Gatwick, Cambridge, and Oxford. Utilizing electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft alongside dedicated vertiport infrastructure, the project targets operational launch in early 2029. A pivotal element of this collaboration is Bristow Group’s role as the operator. Drawing on its UK Air Operator Certificates and extensive global flight operations expertise, Bristow is positioned to transform emerging eVTOL technology into a practical and scalable urban transportation service. The partnership seeks to significantly reduce travel times on critical commuter and airport transfer routes, potentially reshaping regional mobility. Investor Sentiment and Industry Challenges The market is closely monitoring Bristow’s involvement in the UK electric air-taxi project, viewing it as a potential driver of long-term growth. Historically, Bristow’s investment appeal has centered on its resilient offshore and government services, supplemented by the optionality presented by next-generation vertical flight technologies. The recent air-taxi announcement reinforces this optionality but does not alter the company’s immediate focus on fulfilling existing contracts and managing substantial capital expenditures. These factors continue to represent both the primary catalysts and risks influencing the stock’s performance. The broader eVTOL sector, however, faces significant challenges. The industry has encountered criticism for "certification tourism," where companies pursue regulatory approvals in jurisdictions with less stringent requirements before addressing the more rigorous certification processes in the United States and Europe. Progress toward certification has been slow, and no passenger eVTOL aircraft have yet been certified in major Western markets. This regulatory uncertainty has contributed to a sector-wide repricing, tempering investor enthusiasm amid the absence of commercially ready products. Despite these obstacles, recent developments underscore the importance of commercial agreements and government backing as key growth drivers. For instance, Beta Technologies’ stock rose by 9% following the announcement of a $1 billion motor supply deal with Eve Air Mobility, highlighting the market’s responsiveness to tangible progress and strategic partnerships. Bristow’s Growth Outlook and Valuation Bristow’s engagement in the UK air-taxi initiative builds upon its prior investments in eVTOL technology, including participation in Norway’s Advanced Air Mobility Sandbox. Company leadership appears focused on positioning Bristow to capitalize on the commercial viability of eVTOL aircraft and the potential expansion of new service lines. From a financial perspective, Bristow projects revenues of $1.9 billion and earnings of $129.4 million by 2028. This forecast implies an annual revenue growth rate of approximately 9% and an earnings increase of $10.3 million from current levels. The outlook suggests a potential 31% upside to the current share price, contingent upon the company’s ability to balance ongoing capital requirements with the successful execution of its core operations. Investor valuations of Bristow vary considerably, with recent estimates ranging from $6.49 to $47.50 per share. This wide valuation spread reflects uncertainty regarding the company’s capacity to finance its fleet, fulfill government contracts, and leverage emerging eVTOL opportunities. Such divergence underscores the necessity for investors to carefully weigh multiple risk and return scenarios. As the electric air-taxi sector continues to evolve, Bristow’s pioneering role in UK routes may enhance its long-term growth prospects. Nonetheless, investors should remain vigilant of the regulatory and commercial challenges facing the sector, alongside Bristow’s ongoing capital demands.

South Korea Implements AI-Driven Plan to Enhance Aviation Safety South Korea has announced a comprehensive five-year strategy aimed at elevating aviation safety through the integration of artificial intelligence, strengthened regulatory oversight, and market reforms. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) unveiled the Fourth Basic Aviation Policy Plan on June 10, marking the first significant policy update since the Jeju Air crash at Muan Airport last December. Overhauling Safety Systems and Infrastructure Central to the new plan is a thorough modernization of the country’s aviation safety framework. MOLIT will introduce an AI-powered platform designed to analyze national aviation safety data in real time, enabling early detection of potential risks and proactive accident prevention. Additional safety measures include enhanced bird-strike prevention protocols at major airports and continuous monitoring of runway hazards. To meet evolving international standards, the government will revise qualification requirements for pilots and aviation personnel. The air traffic management system is slated for substantial upgrades to accommodate increasing flight volumes and the opening of new airports. This will involve re-segmenting national airspace to improve efficiency and deploying additional Korean Augmentation Satellite System (KASS) satellites to enhance navigation precision. Furthermore, an integrated platform will be developed to synchronize aircraft scheduling with real-time weather information. Market Reforms and Regional Development In response to the recent merger of Korean Air and Asiana Airlines, regulators will implement measures to prevent market monopolization by encouraging new entrants and closely monitoring competition. Support mechanisms will be introduced for financially vulnerable domestic carriers to ensure continued investment in safety and consumer protection. The policy also emphasizes the revitalization of regional airports by promoting local industry participation and attracting sectors such as duty-free retail, logistics, and maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) services. These airports are expected to expand charter and domestic flight operations, evolving into multifunctional hubs that support urban air mobility (UAM), maintenance, and training activities. Passenger protection regulations will be updated to include stricter standards for managing delays, improved accessibility for travelers with mobility challenges, and enhanced support for accident victims. In alignment with global climate goals, the government plans to implement a roadmap mandating the use of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) in the near future. Advancing Future Aviation Technologies The strategy also prioritizes the development and localization of emerging aviation technologies. South Korea aims to expand the application of drone technology across delivery, infrastructure, and leisure sectors. For urban air mobility, the government will establish operating standards and safety frameworks in preparation for anticipated commercial operations by 2028. Despite the ambitious scope of the AI-driven initiative, challenges remain, including the need for significant investment in technology and infrastructure, ensuring compatibility with existing systems, and navigating complex regulatory environments. The plan is expected to attract increased interest from international aviation companies and may prompt neighboring countries to accelerate their own AI adoption efforts, reflecting a global trend toward sovereign AI initiatives. South Korea’s approach positions it alongside the United States and China as a leader in this rapidly evolving domain. “Aviation safety is the foundation of the entire industry,” stated Minister Kim Yun-duk. “If safety falters, the sector contracts. We will place the highest priority on advancing safety management.”

Vertical Aerospace Unveils Valo: Next-Generation eVTOL Aircraft Vertical Aerospace has officially introduced Valo, its latest electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, marking a pivotal advancement in the company’s evolution from prototype developer to aerospace manufacturer. The Valo replaces the previous VX4 model, presenting a redesigned production aircraft tailored for air-taxi services both within the United Kingdom and on the international stage. Unlike the VX4, which primarily functioned as a technology demonstrator, Valo is engineered as a certifiable commercial product. Its design has been refined through extensive flight-test data and direct input from airline and operator customers. The company aims to achieve airliner-level safety certification by 2028, with commercial operations expected to commence shortly after regulatory approval. Initial service routes are anticipated to focus on airport-to-city centre connections, addressing a critical segment of the urban air mobility market. Design Innovations and Enhanced Capabilities Valo maintains the core mission established by the VX4, offering piloted, zero-emission flights capable of covering distances up to 100 miles at speeds reaching 150 miles per hour. However, the aircraft incorporates several significant design enhancements. The airframe features a more aerodynamic fuselage alongside a reconfigured wing and propeller layout, optimized to reduce drag and improve overall efficiency based on insights gained from VX4 flight tests. A notable technical advancement is the introduction of a liquid-cooled under-floor battery system, replacing the previously distributed battery packs. This new architecture not only frees up valuable cabin space but also facilitates future battery upgrades. Additionally, the propulsion system has been redesigned to include updated propeller architecture and full certifiable redundancy of critical systems, aligning with stringent global safety standards. Inside the cabin, Valo offers a premium four-seat layout at launch, with engineering provisions to support future variants accommodating up to six passengers plus an observer seat. The aircraft boasts the largest baggage capacity in its class, capable of holding six cabin bags and six checked bags. This enhancement directly responds to airline feedback emphasizing the importance of ample luggage space for airport transfer services. The flexible cabin configuration is intended to provide operators with commercial versatility, starting with a high-yield four-seat setup and expanding capacity as market demand increases. Strategic Partnerships and Market Positioning Vertical Aerospace has entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with Héli Air Monaco to pre-order Valo aircraft, signaling plans to establish sustainable air mobility routes along the French Riviera. This partnership underscores the company’s ambition to strengthen its presence in key European markets. While competitors such as Joby Aviation, Archer Aviation, and Beta Technologies currently lead in the certification process, Vertical Aerospace highlights its advanced aircraft design, clear certification roadmap, and robust business model as key differentiators within the rapidly evolving eVTOL industry. With the introduction of Valo, Vertical Aerospace seeks to set new benchmarks in safety, efficiency, and passenger experience, positioning itself as a formidable contender in the global race to commercialize eVTOL technology.

LAT Aerospace Strengthens Software Team Amid Industry-Wide Challenges LAT Aerospace has announced a significant expansion of its software and autonomy team, with a targeted recruitment drive across critical areas such as flight control, edge-based perception, and integrated mission command and control systems. Cofounder Surobhi Das revealed the company’s hiring plans in a LinkedIn post on Wednesday, underscoring LAT’s strategic focus on advancing software-driven aerospace technologies. Industry Software Readiness Remains a Key Obstacle This expansion occurs against a backdrop of persistent software readiness challenges within the aerospace sector. Recent setbacks, including the postponement of the next Space Development Agency launch to 2026 due to software complications, highlight the difficulties in integrating sophisticated software into mission-critical aerospace systems. Such issues have raised concerns about operational reliability and safety, with tangible market repercussions. For instance, Airbus SE experienced a notable stock decline following the recall of its A320 aircraft over software-related faults. The broader industry is grappling with these complexities, and LAT Aerospace’s efforts to bolster its software capabilities reflect a proactive approach to overcoming them. Competitors may encounter similar obstacles, potentially resulting in project delays or strategic realignments if software integration problems persist. Navigating a Competitive and Scrutinized Landscape In this environment, companies like Honeywell Aerospace Technologies are emphasizing their advanced navigation solutions to maintain a competitive edge amid increased scrutiny of software reliability. Investor confidence remains closely tied to software performance, given its direct impact on both safety standards and financial outcomes. LAT Aerospace’s current recruitment initiative signals its commitment to assembling a skilled team capable of delivering dependable and innovative software solutions. This move aims to position the company at the forefront of next-generation aerospace missions, addressing the sector’s pressing software challenges head-on.